Q 1. What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries?
The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to introduce various measures create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Q 2. What was the main objective of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815?
To undo the changes brought about in Europe during Napoleonic wars.
Q 3. Who hosted the Congress of Vienna in 1815?
Duke Metternich
Q 4. Who said, “True German culture is to be discovered among common people?
Johann Gottfried Herder
Q 5. Who was Frederic Sorrier and in which year did Frederic Sorrier prepare a series of four prints?
Frederic Sorrier was a painter and in 1848 he prepared a series of four prints.
Q 6. Which treaty recognized Greece as an independent nation?
Treaty of Constantinople
Q 7. Who was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871?
The Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871.
Q 8. Who was Count Cavour?
The Chief Minister of Italy
Q 9. Name a famous Italian Revolutionary.
Giuseppe Mazzini
Q 10. How was the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed?
By the Act of Union, 1707
Q 11. What does the crown of oak leaves worn by Germania stand for
Heroism
Q 12. In France, whose images were marked on coins and stamps during the 1850s?
Marianne
Q 13. Name the region whose habitats were broadly known as Slavs.
The Balkan region
Q 14. Which countries wanted to control Balkans?
Germany, Austria-Hungary, England
Q 15. Which country was not interested in the Balkan Peninsula?
Japan
Q 16. Differentiate between the concept of a modern state and a nation state. How did the sense of common identity develop in Europe?
(1) In a modern state a centralized power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory. It had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.
(2) A nation state was one in which the majority of its citizens and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent
(3) This commonness was forged through struggles, through the actions of the leaders and the common people and did not exist from time immemorial.
Q 17. What happened when the news of revolutionary events in France reached the different cities of Europe? Explain.
(i) When the news of the revolutionary events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
(ii) Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which had entered into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.
(iii) With the outbreak of the revolutionary Wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
Q 18. After 1804 how did the peasants, artisans and new businessmen enjoy freedom in the Units of Europe.
The Civil Code of 1804 (the Napoleonic Code) gave up all privileges based on birth, maintained equality and also established right to property. It abolished the feudal system.
(i) The peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues. It emancipated the peasants and raised their self-confidence. In the towns, Napoleon simplified administrative rules. The system was centralized by formulating uniform law for the citizens within its territory
(ii) Internal custom duties and dues that hampered the flow of business were abolished and a new uniform system of weights and measures was constituted.
(iii) Freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital helped the new businessmen to expand their business.
(iv) This brought prosperity across the classes. Common national currency facilitated the movement, exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
(v) Artisans also had a free hand to represent their creations.
Q 19. How was the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 implemented? Explain with examples.
(1) The main objective of the Treaty of Vienna was to undo most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
(2) The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was implemented in the following ways:-
(a) The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed durum French Revolution was restored to power.
(b) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
(c) The Kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north.
(d) Geneva was added to Piedmont in the south and Prussia was given important new territories.
(e) Austria was given control of Northern Italy and Russia was given part of Poland.
Q 20. Evaluate the contribution of Italian revolutionary- Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe.
Ans. (1) Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, lie was born 1807.
(2) He became a member of secret society of the Carbonating. He founded two more underground societies, first, ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and second, Young Europe’ in Berne whose members were like minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German j states.
(3) Views of Mazzini:
(a) He believed that nations are natural units of mankind.
(b) In his view, creation of nation-states is a necessary part of struggle for freedom.
(c) He was opposed to monarchy and believed in the vision of democratic republics. He did not believe in small states and kingdoms. He wanted to forge them into a unified nation.
Q 21. Why was the issue of extending political rights to women a controversial one within the liberal movement in 1848? What do these revolutions reveal about political conflicts due to gender differences?
(1) The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movements in which a large number of women had participated actively over the years.
(2) Though women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations but they were denied suffrage.
(3) When the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
Q 22. Explain the political meaning of liberalism.
(1) The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root ‘Liter’ meaning free.
(2) Politically liberalism’ emphasized the concept of government by consent.
(3) Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clergies. privileges, a Constitution and representative government through parliament.
Q 23. Describe the circumstances that led to the July Revolution of 1830. Who led such revolutions in Europe?
(1) In July 1830, the first upheaval took place in France.
(2) The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815 were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
(3) The economic hardships, a rise in food price, the burden of feudal dues and obligations on the peasants were some more reasons for the revolt.
(4) The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
(5) This revolution was led by liberal nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class elite among whom were professors, school teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
Q 24. How far is it correct to say that the time period from 1830 to 1848 saw hunger, hardship, revolt and revolution of the liberals? Explain.
Europe saw the worst days from 1830 to 1848. Hunger, hardship, revolt and revolution of the liberals made economic condition worst. There was an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(1) There were more seekers of the job than employment in most of countries.
(2) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England.
(3) The textile industry was most affected by England’s industrialization.
(4) The rise of food prices or a year o” f bad harvest led to wide-spread pauperism in towns and villages.
(5) The year 1848 was such a year. Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads which forced Louis Philippe to flee.
Q 25. Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe. Which conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes during Napoleon’s rule? State.
During the nineteenth century, Europe faced many great obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the commercial classes due to the following reasons:
(i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums and could not afford to fulfill the basic needs.
(iii) Unemployment increased. In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment.
(iv) Cheap machine-made goods from England were giving stiff competition to small producers of European towns.
(v) The prices of food inflated manifolds due to bad harvest. It led to a widespread pauperism in European towns.
Q 26. Describe any five reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered.
The reaction of the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon was mixed.
(1) Initially, the French armies were seen as the torch-bearers of liberty. In Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed. But very soon, people could realize that the new administrative system of Napoleon was not going to guarantee political freedom.
(2) Increase in taxes, censorship and forced conscription into as outweighing the advantages of administrative reforms which
(3) Thus, the initial enthusiasm of people started dying and Napoleon and his ever-increasing oppressive rule.
Q 27. Explain any three measures or practices which created a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Following were the measures and practices introduced by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people :
(1) The idea of /a patria (the fatherland) and le citizen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
(2) A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the formal royal standards.
(3) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed as the National Assembly.
(4) New hymns were composed, oaths were taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
(5) A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory
(6) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(7) Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
Q 28. ”The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of many different regions and people.” Justify the statement with suitable examples.
(1) In the mid-eighteenth century, there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today.
(2) German, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
(3) Even Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse people.
(4) They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. Different languages were spoken. People belonged to different ethnic groups.
(5) The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of many different regions and people which included the Alpine regions — the Tyrol Austria and the Sudetenland as well as Bohemia where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
(6) In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar and other local dialects.
(7) In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant people also lived.
Q 29. The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Explain the role of Romantic imagination in a national feeling.
Role of Romantic imagination in a national feeling:
(1) Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation.
(2) Art and poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
(3) Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of the nation.
(4) Romanticists believed that it was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularized.
(5) They emphasized on vernacular languages and the collection of local folklore not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
(6) They tried to change the cultural element into nationalist symbols.
Q 30. Describe the background and execution of the process of Italian unification.
(1) Like Germany, Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg Empire.
(2) In the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states and only one Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(3) Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and local variations.
(4) Italy was unified in 1861 and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.
(5) Following are the features of the unification movement in Italy:
(a) During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programmed for the unitary Italian Republic. The ruling elites also were of the view that a unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance.
(b) The unification of Italy was a result of many wars. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrian forces in 1859.
(c) Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Garibaldi joined the fray.
(d) In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilians and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish ruler. In this way, the unification process was completed.
Q 31. Describe any two dissimilarities between the process of unification of Italy and Germany.
(1) The German unification was not supported by armed volunteers. In Italian unification, Garibaldi had won the support of local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(2) No secret societies were formed so as to achieve the goal of unification of Germany. But in Italy, Mazzini formed Young Italy.
(3) Italian unification was completed 10 years before Germany was united.
(4) Germany, in its unification, had to fight against France and Austria, while in Italian unification Cavour had a tactful diplomatic alliance with France to defeat Austria.
(5) Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ for German unification, while Cavour used his excellent diplomatic skills in Italian unification.
Q 32. Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of ‘German unification’. Explain.
Following were the processes of unification of Germany:
(1) In 1948, a large number of political associations comprising of middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans tried to unite the different regions of Germany into a nation state governed by an elected parliament.
(2) This initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the army, supported by landowners of Prussia.
(3) Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister Bismarck was the architect of this process.
(4) He followed the policy of Blood-Iron to materialize nationalist aspirations. He took the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy over a period of seven years, fought three wars with Austria, Denmark and France and emerged victoriously.
(5) These victories completed the process of unification of Germany. In January 1871, the Prussian King Kaiser William I was proclaimed the German Emperor.
Q 33. Discuss the role of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the unification of Italy.
(1) Cavour: (a) He led the movement to unify the regions of Italy.
(b) Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, engineered by Cavour, Sardinia–Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces.
(2) Garibaldi: He gathered a large number of armed volunteers and marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilians and succeeded in winning the support of locals to drive out Spanish.
(3) Mazzini: (a) He had sought to put together a coherent programmed for the Unitary Italian Republic.
(b) He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goal.
(4) Ring Victor Emmanuel II: He tried to unify the Italian states through war.
Q 34. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
(a) The artists in France, in 1850, personified the nation. It means the nation was represented as a person. They chose the female figure to represent the nation. This female figure, in itself, contained the idea of people’s nation.
(b) This figure was named ‘Marianne’. It represented liberty, justice and republic.
(c) The statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind people of the national symbol of unity.
(d) It was marked on coins and stamps.
(e) This figure of ‘Marianne’ gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form which became an allegory of the nation also.
(2) (a) Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
(b) In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves as the German oak stands for heroism.
Q 35. How was Europe closely allied to the ideology of liberalism?
In Europe, the educated liberal middle class spearheaded the nationalist movement. They stood for the freedom of individual and equality of all before the law. Following were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals:
(1) Political ideas — The ideology of liberalism supported the ideas of national unity and abolition of aristocratic privileges. It also advocated for a constitutional and representative government through parliament. It did not stand for the idea of universal suffrage.
(2) Social ideas — They supported freedom for the individual and the idea of equality of all before the law.
(3) Economic ideas — There was freedom of markets and abolition of State-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. In 1834, a custom union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and it was joined by all German states. Zollverein abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies. Introduction of a system of weights and measures also strengthened the ideology of liberalism.
Q 36. How did Balkan region problems lead to a series of wars and finally gave shape to the First World War? Explain.
For the following reasons, Balkans was the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871:
(1) Balkans was a region of geographical and ethical variations comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as Slays.
(2) A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
(3) As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
(4) The Balkan states were jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of other. Balkans also became an area of big power rivalry.
(5) Each European power such as Russia, Germany, England, and Austria-Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans and this led to a series of wars eventually the First World War.
Q 37. ”It is said that Napoleon had ruined democracy.” What positive acts of Napoleon attract your attention?
(1) Devotion towards equality.
(2) Restoration of natural rights.
(3) Uniformity of administration.
(4) Demolition of privileges.
(5) Freedom to peasants.
Q 38. What was the Sorrieu’s Utopian Vision ?
In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
Q 39. By the time of 1848 , Which countries were Nation States ?
By the time of 1848 , United States and Switzerland were Nation States .
Q 40. Define Absolutist ?
A Government or System of Rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of Monarchical government that was centralized, militarized and repressive.
Q 41. What were the various measures and practices followed by French Revolution to create the sense of Collective Identity ?
- The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
- A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
- The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
- New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
- A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
- Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
- Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
- The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism.
Q 42. What happened when the news of Revolutionary events in France reached the different cities of Europe ? Explain .
- When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
- Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.
- With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
Q 43. After 1804 How did the peasants, Artisans and New businessmen enjoy freedom in the units of Europe ?
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
- In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
- Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
- Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform
laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
Q 44. Why the Europeans later turned hostile to the French Armies ?
Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.
Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to
conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
Q 45. How was Habsburg Empire organized in the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Europe ?
- The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples.
- It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia,
where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. - It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spokePolish.
- Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples – Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.
- Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.
Q 46. How Language played an Important role in developing Nationalists interests in case of Poland ?
Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
- In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
- Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
- A large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance
Q 47. What was the idea of Romanticism as per German Philosopher “Johann Gottfried Herder” ?
The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk.
- It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised.
- So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.
- The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
Q 48. What were the features of Customs union formed in 1834 ?
- In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.
- The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
- The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.
- A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
growing at the time.
Q 49. What was the idea of Revolutionaries after the Convention of 1815 ?
- During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
- To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
- Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
Q 50. What were the outcomes of Treaty of Vienna in 1815 ?
- The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
- The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
- A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
- Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
- The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
- In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
- The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.
Q 51. Why Customs Union was formed in 1834 ?
- Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures, this involved time-consuming calculation.
- The measure of cloth, for example, was the elle which in each region stood for a different length.
- These above stated conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
Q 52. Explain about the Aristocracy prevalent in Europe in mid-eighteenth century ?
- Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
- The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
- They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage.
- This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry.
Q 53. What were the various measures and practices followed by French Revolutionaries to create sense of Collective Identity ?
- From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
- The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
- A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
- The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
- New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated,
all in the name of the nation. - A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
- Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
- Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
- The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism.
Q 54. Who were Conservatives?
- Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
- Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family –should be preserved. - Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
- Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could
in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could make state power more effective and strong. - A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism
and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Q 55. After 1804 , How did the peasants , Artisans and New Businessmen enjoy freedom in the units of Europe ?
- The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
- This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
- In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
- Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
Q 56. Where Parliament of Germany was convened on 18 May, 1848 ?
The Parliament of Germany was conveyed in the Church of St Paul on May 18, 1848.
Q 57. Who were Junkers ?
Junkers were large landowners of Prussian Empire .
Q 58. In which Year Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy ?
1861.
Q 59. What does Germna Oak stands for ?
German Oak stands for Heroism.
Q 60. What was the language of the Scottish Highlanders ?
Gaelic Language
Q 61. What Ruling Elites thought of the Italian Unification ?
The Ruling Elites saw the unification of Italy as an opportunity of economic development and political dominance.
Q 62. How the English Nation dominated the Scottish people ?
- The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
- The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
- The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
- The ScottishHighlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
Q 63. What is Allegory ?
Allegory is an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy,freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.
Q 64. How was Ireland incorporated into United Kingdom ?
- Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
- The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
- Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
- After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
- A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
- The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Q 65. How the tension in the Balkan area led Europe to disaster in 1914 ?
- The Balkan area became an area of intense conflict as the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence.
- Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
- During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.
- Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.
- This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War. Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.
Q 66. Which areas in Europe were called Balkan ?
- The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
- A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
Q 67. How did the Balkan Area became explosive ?
- The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
- One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
- The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
- Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.