Q 1 – What were the features of the lives of the Bedouins in the early seventh century?
The Bedouins were Arab tribes. The main features of their lives are as follows:
They led a nomadic life.
They were indulged in looting, plundering and internal quarrels.
They were camel pastoralists and moved with their animals from oases to oases.
Date-palm and camel milk were their main diet.
Their social organisation was based on independent tribes
Q 2 – What is meant by the term ‘Abbasid revolution’?
The term ‘Abbasid revolution’ refers to the Dawa Movement initiated by Abu Muslim from Khurasan
against the Umayyad dynasty. This revolution put an end to the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled from 661 to 750.
With the fall of Umayyad dynasty in 750, the Abbasid came to power and ruled till 1258.
Q 3 – Give examples of the cosmopolitan character of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks.
Examples of the cosmopolitan character of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks:
The vast Arab empire was inhabited by the people of multi cultural identities, i.e. the Muslims, the Christians and the Jews.
The Iranian empire witnessed for the development of Muslim and Asian culture.
In Turkish empire, the Egyptian, Iranian, Syrian and Sudanian culture developed simultaneously.
Q 4 – What were the effects of the Crusades on Europe and Asia?
Effects of the Crusades on Europe and Asia:
The Crusades resulted in the fall of the authority of feudal lords in Europe and an increased power of the monarch.
These Crusades also resulted into increase in the knowledge of the Europeans. They were surprised to see the progress made by the Muslims in the ¦elds of art, science, and literature.
There was great in§uence of the Italian mercantile communities in trade between the East and the West. These also led to change in the method of warfare. For defense purpose, new forts were constructed.
Q 5 – How were Islamic architectural forms different from those of the Roman Empire?
Roman architecture: The Roman architectural forms or buildings were solid and magnicent. These features were the key features of the Roman architectural form. It introduced two architectural features the arch and cupolas or domes. There were multi storeyed buildings with one raw arches standing over the another. Round arches were used in city gates, bridges, buildings and monuments of victory. The spread of Christianity gave a new impetus to the building of the Roman empire. St Sophia in Constantinople and buildings in Jerusalem stand witness to the Roman architectural skill.
Islamic architecture: Islamic architectural form represents the great architectural symbol of Islamic world. The Islamic art right from Spain to Central Asia represents some basic architectural features such as horse shoe arches, bubois, domes, minarets, columns and open courtyard. The Islamic architectural pattern of building built around the central courtyard was not only the key features of the mosques but also of sarai (built for carazans) and palaces. Calligraphy and geometric designs were also used to decorate architecture and manuscripts.
Q 6 – Describe a journey from Samarqand to Damascus, referring to the cities on the route.
Activity based Question. Students are advised to do it with the help of their teachers.
Hint: While travelling from Samarqand to Damascus, a traveler would have to pass through many states.
Some of these states are Transoxina, Khurasan, Iran, Iraq and Syria
Q 7 – Mention a few sources which provide information about the history of central Islamic lands between 600-1200 CE
These sources are the following:
Chronicles
Biographies
Eye witness report
The Quran
Archaeological evidences
Sayings of Prophet Muhammad
Q 8 – Who was the founder of Islam?
The founder of Islam was Prophet Muhammad
Q 9 – Name the two main sects of Muslims
The two main sects of Muslims are:
Q 10 – Who was Tughril Beg?
Tughril Beg was the founder of Saljuq dynasty.
Q 11 – To which tribe did Prophet Muhammad belong to? In which year did he attain enlightenment?
Prophet Muhammad belonged to Quraysh tribe. He attained enlightenment in 612 CE
Q 12 – By which name Hijri year is also known as? How many days are there in it?
Hijri year is also known as Lunar year. In a Hijri (Lunar) year there are 354 days
Q 13 – Name the First and second Khalifa of Muslims
The first Khalifa of Muslim world was Abu Bakr and the second one was Umar.
Q 14 – When did Umayyad dynasty come into power? Name its last ruler.
The Umayyad dynasty came into power in 661 CE. Its last ruler was Marwan-II.
Q 15 – What do you know about the Battle of Karbala?
The Battle of Karbala was fought in 680 CE between Yazid’and Hussain. In this, Yazid defeated Hussain
Q 16 – When was Prophet Muhammad forced to migrate Mecca?
Prophet Muhammad was forced to migrate Mecca in 622
Q 17 – When and between whom Battle of Camel was fought?
The Battle of Camel was fought between Ali’s supporters and army led by Muhammad’s wife Aisha in 657.
Q 18 – Who were Kharjis? What was their role?
Kharjis were the breakway group of Ali’s followers. They were the sources of trouble for Arab state for half a century.
Q 19 – Who were Muslims?
The followers of Prophet Muhammad were called Muslims. They believed in the worship of one God, i.e. Allah.
Q 20 – Where is Dome of Rock? Who built it?
The Dome of Rock is in Jerusalem. It was built by Abd-al-Malik.
Q 21 – Describe the signi¦cance of Dome of Rock in brief.
It is one of the earliest major works of Islam.
It is associated with the night journey of Prophet Muhammad to the heaven.
Q 22 – Who was the founder of Umayyad dynasty?
The founder of Umayyad dynasty was Muawiyash.
Q 23 – How did the Abbasids dynasty legitimise their bid to power?
The followers of Abbas, the uncle of Prophet Muhammad were known as Abbasids. They promised to various Arab groups that a messiah from the Prophet would liberate them from the oppression of Umayyid regime.
Q 24 – What were the reasons for the weaknesses of Abbasid state in 9th century? (Write any two reasons).
The reasons for the weaknesses of the Abbasid state in 9th century were:
Ans.
- Their control over the distant province began to decline.
- The continuous con§ict between Pro-Arab and Pro-Iranian groups in bureaucracy led to their weaknesses also.
Q 25 – What do you know about Rabia?
Rabia was the first woman Su¦ saint. She was deeply religious. Her teachings had a deep impact on the heart and mind of the people.
Q 26 – Who were Turks? Write about them in brief.
Turks were the nomadic tribes of central Asia. They were skilled warriors and horse riders. They joined Abbasid, Samand and Buyid administration as slaves and soldiers. They were raised to the high position on account of their loyalty and military skill.
Q 27 – Write any two teachings of Islam.
Teachings of Islam:
God, i.e. Allah is one. He is omnipresent and omnipotent.
People should lead a simple life.
Q 28 – Who were Muslims? Which two things did they promise?
The people who accepted Prophet Muhammad’s doctrines were known as Muslims. They promised:
They were promised salvation on the Day of Judgement.
They would be given a share of the resources of the community while on the earth.
Q 29 – Define the term “Caliph”.
The term ‘Caliph’ means the successor of Prophet Muhammad.
Q 30 – How was the institution of Caliphate created?
Prophet Muhammad attained salvation in 632 CE. After his death, there was no one, who could legitimately claim to be the next Prophet of Islam. No rule was made regarding the institution. That’s why after his death Islamic authority was transferred to the Ulema. In this way, the institution of Caliphate was created.
Q 31 – Describe in brief the signi¦cance of Muhammad’s shift from Mecca to Madina.
Muhammad shifted from Mecca to Madina in 622 CE. The signi¦cance of this shift is summed up under following heads: It is referred to in Arabic as ‘Hijrat’.It marks the beginning of the Islamic era.
Q 32 – Why did Prophet Muhammad migrate to Madina?
Prophet Muhammad migrated to Madina on account of the following reasons:
He faced stiff opposition from the Meccan since their faith differed from their regions and practices.Meccan took offence to the rejection of the deities.The Meccans found a new religion a threat to the status and prosperity of Mecca..
Q 33 – Why did Fatimids consider themselves as the sole rightful rulers of Islam?
Fatimid’s belonged to the Islami sub-sect of Shias and considered themselves as the rightful rulers of Islam because they were the descendant of Fatima, the daughter of Prophet Muhammad.
Q 34 – How did Arab bring Syria, Iraq and Egypt under their control?
Taking the advantages of ongoing religious con§icts and revolts of the aristocracy, the Arab established their control over Syria, Iraq and Egypt in three successful campaigns which lasted from 637 to 642 CE.
Q 35 – Name the four schools of Islamic law. Which is the most conservative among them?
The four schools of Islamic law ‘Mazhab’ were:
1. Maliki
2. Hanafi
3. Shafii
4. Hanbali
The most conservative among them was the Hanbali School of Islamic Law.
Q 36 – What did the history of Islamic world bring together?
The history of Islamic world brought together three aspects of human civilization politics, religion and community.
Q 37 – What are the twin objectives of Caliphate?
The two in objectives of the Caliphate are as follows:
1. To firmly establish control over the tribes constituting the ‘umma’.
2. To raise resources of the state.
Q 38 – What do you know about the Battle of Karbala?
Battle of Karbala was fought in 680 between Yazid and Hussain. In this war, Hussain was defeated by Yazid.
Q 39 – Name any four important literary works of Islamic world.
Four literary works of Islamic world are as follows:
1. Kitab al-Bukhla
2. al-Qanun-¦l-Tibb
3. Shahnama
4. Kalila Wa Dimna
Q 40 – Between whom the Battle of Camel was fought?
The Battle of Camel was fought in 656 CE, between Calipha Ali and Aisha.
Q 41 – Who was the last Khalifa of Umayyad dynasty?
The last Khalifa of Umayyad dynast was Calipha Marwan II.
Q 42 – Describe the importance of Nishapur in two sentences.
1. Nishapur was one of the most important centres of Perso-Islamic learning.
2. It was the birth place of Umar Khayyan.
Q 43 – By whom and when was Tahir dynasty founded?
Tahir dynasty was founded by Tahirids in 820 CE.
Q 44 – When was the Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samara built?
The Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samara was built in 850. It is 50 metre high and made of bricks
Q 45 – What do you know about Umar Khayyam?
Umar Khayyam was a popular poet and astronomer. He made popular ‘Rubai’, a four line stanza.
Q 46 – Who wrote ‘Shahnama’? Describe its two features.
‘Shahnama’ was written by Mahmud of Ghazni’s court poet, Firdausi. Features It is a collection of traditional legends and traditions. There are 60,000 couplets in it.
Q 47 – What is ‘Sharia’?
‘Sharia’ is a body of Islamic sacred laws derived from the ‘Quran’, and the ‘Hadith’.
Q 48 – Describe any two impact of Islam on the Arabian people.
1. Islam united the Arabian people politically.
2. It taught them the lesson of brotherhood.
Q 49 – Describe in brief the incident, which helped in making of paper in Samarqand.
In 751, the Muslim governor of Samarqand took nearly 20,000 Chinese invaders into his captivity and brought them to Samarqand. Some of these prisoners were good at making paper. They helped in the making of paper in Samarqand.
Q 50 – Describe in short the contribution of Arabs in the field of culture.
In the field of literature, Arabian Nights, Rubiayat and Firdausi’s Shahnama are world famous. The architectural features of Arabs like the dome, the minaret’s horse shoes, arches, twisted columns are magnicent examples of Arabian architecture.
Q 51 – Who was Ibn Sina?
Ibn Sina was a doctor by profession. He did not believe in the resurrection of the body on the Judgement Day.
Q 52 – What do you know about the great Mosque of Mutawwakil in Samara?
This Mosque was built in 850. It is 50 metres high and made of bricks. It is inspired by Mesopotamian architectural traditions
Q 53 – What are the five pillars of Islam?
The five pillars of Islam are:
1. There is only one God, i.e. Allah.
2. Namaj should be offered ¦ve in a day.
3. Zakat should be given to the needy.
4. Fasts should be kept in the month of Ramzan.
5. All Muslims should take the pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in their lives.
Q 54 – Describe the main teachings of Islam.
Main teachings of Islam are given below:
Allah should be worshiped.
No Muslim should practice idol worship. It is a sin.
Muslims should believe that all Muslims are equal. They should regard themselves as brothers.
All Muslims should follow the same rules regarding marriage and divorce.
All Muslims should lead a simple life.
Q 55 – Describe in brief how Prophet Muhammad’s religion was a factor in the growth of Arab unity.
Prophet Muhammad’s religion was a responsible factor in the growth of Arab unity as;
The religion started by Him was denoted by a term Islam implied to complete submission.
He told that there is only one God, i.e. Allah. He emphasised on the principles of equality and unity, for those who accepted Allah and the Prophet.
Q 56 – What do you know about Arab tribe? Write in short.
The entire Arab society was divided into tribes known as Qabila, headed by a chief. The chief of Qabila (Tribe) was elected on the basis of his family, wisdom and courage. Besides these, his personality also played a crucial role. Each tribe had its own religious beliefs. They worshiped their own gods and goddesses in mosques.
The tribes were nomadic, and kept on moving from one region to another in search of food and fodder for their camels. Some of them settled and practiced trade or agriculture. Muhammad’s own tribe was Qurayash who had reigned its supremacy in Mecca. It established its control over Kaba, a cublic like structure in which idols were placed. Even the tribes outside Mecca considered the Kaba installed their own idols at this shrine, making annual pilgrimage (Hajj) to the shrine.
Q 57 – What were Crusades? Describe its two impact on the Christian Muslim relations.
Crusades meant the military expeditions. It was organized in western Christendom to recover the holy places of Palestine from Muslim occupation. The four Crusades were fought, as given below.
1. First Crusade – 1095 to 1099 CE
2. Second Crusade – 1147 to 1148 CE
3. Third Crusade – 1189 to 1192 CE
4. Fourth Crusade – 1202 to 1204 CE
Impact on Christian-Muslim relations
Ever since the Crusade, the people of western Christendom developed a stereotypical and distorted Islamic image.
These wars resulted in harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects.
Q 58 – Write any four factors responsible for the rise of Arab empire.
The following factors were responsible for the rise of Arab empire:
The Arabs were skilled warriors.
The Arabs were successful merchants, who maintained their trade relations with the far off countries.
The spread of Islam in different countries, also helped them in consolidating their empire.
They collected information from the available sources and developed it still further.
Q 59 – Why did the early Caliph follow an expansionist policy? Which factors contributed to their success?
The early Caliph followed an expansionist policy because:
They were well aware about the fact that ‘Umma’ could not be maintained but the modest income taken through trade and taxes.
They realised that a rich booty could be obtained by expediting raids.
The Byzantine and Sassarian empires patronised Christianity and Zoroastrianism respectively. On the eve of Arab’s
invasion both these empires began to decline. This provided an opportunity to the Arabs to expand their empire.
The following factors contributed to their success:
Arabs used camels which could work easily in desert regions.
Q 60 – What are the sources used for the description of the Central Islamic lands?
These are Chronicles-
- Tawarikh,
- Sira,
- Hadith and
- Tafsir-are composed of a compilation of Akhbar, Khabar, and isnad.
Other Material-
- Legal texts,
- travelogues,
- stories and poems.
Documentary-
- Arabic papyri,
- official orders,
- private correspondences.
Epigraphy-Study of inscriptions.
Numismatic–Study of coins
Q 61 – What was Aramaic?
It was a language of Hebrew and Arabic family or group of languages. This language can be seen on the Ashokan pillars.
Q 62 – Who was Muhammed?
He was an Arab by culture and a merchant by profession. . His tribe was Quraysh. He was murals and therefore, chosen as chief of his tribe. Subsequently, he became a prophet to Islam.
Q 63 – How was Islam came into being in Arabia?
It was due to the rise of Muhammed, the chief of the Quraysh tribe as a prophet and with his declaration as rasul (messenger) of Cod.
Q 64 – Who was considered a member of Umma?.
The man who offers Salat, generous to the poor (i.e. gives alms) and keeps him away from any theft and piracy.
Q 65 – Whether you think, raid and loot of caravans was not theft but labor?
Actually, Islam has considered theft confine to mere defraud or cheat not involving the use of force, tricks, etc. which tantamounted to exhort things that genuinely and legally not one’s owned or earned.
Q 66 – What would the Umma do in Islamic concern?
Umma or the community of believers in God would bear witness (Shahada) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities.
Q 67 – Who are Muslims?
Followers of Islamic order or religion are Muslims because since Prophet Muhammed’s ruling, coincide religion made integral parts to constitution and raids for booty were not considered “theft” however; abstain from theft was the feature of eligibility to become a member of Umma.
Q 68 – Who was Marsalis?
Non-Arabs were addressed as Marsalis. These became members of Arab tribes through the patronage of prominent tribesmen. They were discriminated against by, Arab tribes on several counts.
Q 69 – Who brought messages to Muhammed?
He was a divine figure reckoned with Archangel Gabriel (Jibril). His first word was Iqra from which has come to the term Quran.
Q 70 – What is considered in Islamic cosmology?
Angels are considered as one of the three intelligent forms of life in the Universe. The other two are humans and Jinns.
Q 71 – What is excellent or unique in the history of the Central Islamic lands?
A unique in the history of the central Islamic lands was a merger of three important aspects of human civilization i.e. religion, community, and politics into one. We can see them as three circles that merge and appear as one in the seventh century. It could separate in the next five centuries. Later on, the influence of Islam over state and government became nominal and politics involved many things that have no sanction in religion and thus, the circles of religion and community were overlapped by politics. Politics became a separate circle. The only way the circles of religion and community could have separated was through the progressive secularisation of Muslim society. Philosophers and Sufis advocated this, suggesting that civil society should be made autonomous and rituals be replaced by private spirituality.
Q 72 – Describe a morning scene in Basra.
Basra is a city that falls in IraQuestion Here were settled Arab soldiers (Jind) who formed the backbone of the administration. It was a garrison city. There were a number of companies (branches of troops) parading in the morning. Military headquarter we see here. We could see them doing prayer in a mosque because such was made mandatory under Islamic administration.
Q 73 – What knowledge could one obtain from Geniza records? Explain.
Geniza records consisted of over two lakh fifty thousand manuscripts and fragments dating back from the Fa timid, Ayyubid, and early Mamluk periods. Most of the documents were written in Judaeo-Arabic, a version of Arabic written in Hebrew characters that were commonly used by Jewish communities throughout the medieval Mediterranean. These provide rich insight into personal and economic experiences and into Mediterranean and Islamic culture. These suggest that the business skills and commercial techniques of merchants of the medieval Islamic world were more advanced than those of their European counterparts. On the basis of a study on these documents, Goitein composed a multi-volume history of the Mediterranean, and Amitav Ghosh composed “In an Antique Land.”
Q 74 – Discuss Byzantine and Iranian coins and that of Arab-Islamic coins?
Byzantine coins were called denarius while the Iranian coins were drachma. Symbols of crosses, Sine alters along with an inscription of Greek and Pchlari (the language of Iran).
Aba-al-Malik removed these symbols and language inscribed thereon but the shape and size were kept unchanged. Initially, Abd- al-Malik inscribed his portrait with name and image. Subsequently, it was made epigraphic. A Kalima was inscribed in Arabic which means–There is no god but Allah and He has no partner (Sharik). This change was made because there developed dissatisfaction subsequently representation of living beings in art and craft.
Discuss the causes and consequences of the Abbasid revolution
It was named as Dawa movement and it brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan regions, the Abbasids in 750 CE. Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. This revolution broke out in Khurasan (eastern Iran) where a mixed Arab-Iranian population was mobilized. Arab soldiers were from Iraq and resented the dominance of the Syrians. The Umayyad regime had not reduced the taxes and their demand for privileges left unaccepted. Iranian Muslims (Mawalis) were discriminated against by Arabs. Thus, Umayyad’s Caliph Marwan was defeated in a battle at the river Zab and thereafter, Abbasid Caliphate formed.
Q 75 – Outline the fiscal system adopted in die Central Islamic lands.
Fiscal System-Owing to the rapid growth of urban centers, cities, towns and the trade, income, and expenditure of the state had also spurt-up. This increased the importance of money in the central Islamic Lands. In order to pay for goods and services, coins of gold, silver, and copper were minted and circulated in bags sealed by money-changers.
Gold was brought from Sudan in Africa, silver from Europe (Zarafshan valley), and precious metals and coins were also brought from Europe. Demand for money inspired dead people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation. Credit facilities were also developed. Letter of Credit (Sakk) and bill of exchange (Suftajer) was used for the transfer of money from one place to another. Commercial papers like promissory notes, cheques, etc. freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere. It made their journey safer. Salaries to soldiers or rewards to poets and minstrels were paid in Sakk (cheques). Investment increased and partnership business’s opened. Thus, the fiscal system under Islamic land was approximately in modem line.
Q 76 – Explain the Quran and the difficulties in case of it as source material for the history of early Islam
The Quran is a book in Arabic consisting of 114 chapters (Suras). Chapters are in descending order of length i.e. the shortest chapter is the less. Only first Sura is a short prayer (al-Fatihah. This book is considered as a collection of messages which God gave to Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632, first in Mecca and then in Medina. It was completed in 650 CE. The verses engraved on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and oh the coins in the seventh century are the earliest.
Problems for the use of the Quran as source material for the history of early Islam have arisen. The one is to understand it literally as the theologians believe these as the speech of God (Kalam Allah). The rationalists have given a wider interpretation of the Quran. Such dual-position raises controversy to arrive at the conclusion. The second problem is that of events not narrated by m Quran. It only refers to the events therefore, Medieval scholars have to make sense of many verses with the help of hadith. We see, there are many hadith written to help in the reading of the Quran.
Q 77 – Whether the thoughts of Abdul-Latif, a twelfth-century legal and medical scholar of Baghdad about an ideal student as extracted in this chapter are relevant to a student today?
We think the suggestions are all relevant to a student today provided that one could construe the meaning and implication of this extract in a positive manner. We can sum up the main points suggested as under-
- Self-conscience without the proper guidance of teachers ipso- facto is unscientific as it may be mere fiction.
- Don’t think the limitation of the teacher but take all good that he delivers as your review, introspection, and churning on the same would lead you to the facts.
- Don’t do cramming but understand the topics so better way as the physical presence of the book is no more required.
- Histories, biographies, and Geography are the subjects that introduce a man to his surroundings. Analyze and compare the cause and effects of all events and activities.
- Frame opinion after study on biographies of great men cautiously by taking your nature as innocent as a child.
- Once the conclusion has arrived, stay undeniable there even if the world criticizes you.
On the basis of the above points, the study becomes perfect and scientific for which no options remain. Here literally suggested submission before Prophet and distrust your nature but its implication leads to the scientific process of the study. We can replace prophet with. the generalization which is made after experiments done impartially. Similarly, distrust of your nature implies cleanliness of head and heart while in a study which is necessary to grasp the sense in its basic form and generalization thereafter would automatically provide with the apparent light in the matter so churned.
Conclusion-Hence, we can state that cramming and study are useless even in modem sense and curriculum and the same has been started and suggested in the aforesaid extract.
Q 78 – Discuss the influence of Greek philosophy, mathematics and medicine added to the curriculum of schools under the central Islamic Lands?
Study on these subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on Islamic intellectual life. Scholars with a logical bent of mind Eg. Mutazila started using Greek logic and methods of reasoning (Kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers (Malaysia) posed wider questions and provided fresh answers. Books on medicines were confused like al-Qanun fil Tibb (Canon of Medicine) by Ibn Sina. The poetry of that period is called Nazm and prose is called nature. Ode (qasida) is the poetic composition by poets of the Abbasid period.
Abu Nawas composed classical poetry on themes like wine and male love. Sufi’s glorified the intoxication caused by the wine of mystical love. An Arabic vocabulary was developed. The Father of the new Persian poetry was Radaki, a court poet under Samanids. Rubai and Ghazals were composed.
The rubai is a four line-stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised and the fourth delivers the point. Umarkhayyam of Bukhara was a famous poet who composed rubai. Diwans and Mathnavi (anthologies and epic poetry) were composed during the period of Mahmud of Ghazni. Firdausi composed Shahnama (Book of King) and Kitab-Al-Fihrist describes a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers.
Other books written during this period were Kalilawa Dimna, Stories of Alexander and Sindbad, The Thousand and One Nights, Kitab al-Bukhala, Akhlaq, Mirrors for Princes Tarikh (Ansab al-Ashraf) and Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk, Rihla and Ahsan al-Taqasim, Muruj al Dhahab and Tahqiq mail-Hind.
Q 79 – Describe the Sufis and their new method of devotion.
Sufis were religious minded people in medieval Islam. They preached knowledge of God through asceticism (Rahbaniya) and mysticism. These people sought to renounce the world (Zuhd) and rely on God alone (Tawakkul). Mysticism attained new heights by the idea of pantheism and love. Pantheism is the idea of the oneness of God and His creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its maker. Ishq or intense love can only help in the merger of the soul with god. Sufis used musical concerts (Sama) to introduce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love and passion. Rabia and Bayazid Bistani were some Sufis. Sufism was beyond the boundaries of caste, race, religion, and creed. According to theory, religion is more personal and less institutional.
Q 80 – Give a brief account of the society, its largest organization (Caliphate, Sultanate, etc.), Cultural, Vocational, literary, scientific achievements, and religion as a motive for cause and the effects in the Central Islamic Lands.
Society is formed of individuals and individuals are the finished product of families. Again we know that family, the first unit of Society formation, actually determines the instincts and motives that manifest before him in the shape of events either good or bad as calculated by society on its perceived goals in a fixed timeline or the phase of time
The topography, sense of realization or religion as adopted and adapted to the contemporary society, availability of sources and resources including water, humans, minerals, soil, and their proportionate adjustment (Formation of climate, temperature, precipitation, etc.)-all determine combinedly, the account of human actions in the lap of nature. Such account constitutes the history of a particular time frame classified with certain distinctions and comparisons. We can give a summed-up account of the Central Islamic Lands as under-
A. Society-(a) Topography-We see, the central Islamic lands covered by the Mediterranean sea and Black sea at the west, the Red Sea at the south, the Arabian sea at eastern-west along with the Persian Gulf and Caspian and Aral sea at the north and north-east respectively. There are also existed rivers like Euphrates, Nile, etc.
Impact-Trade and commerce developed at the climax. Terrestrial routes like the silk route and sea routes like the Red Sea route and Persian Gulf route were invented.
Red-Sea route-Aden and Aydhab ports of this sea started receiving Indian and Chinese goods. Eg. spices, textile, porcelain, and gunpowder.
Persian Gulf Route-Goods mentioned above were carried to Siraf and Basra ports of the Persian Gulf.
Silk Route-China reached through the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. It was the terrestrial way. Camel caravans and carts were used. These two cities were also important for trading with European countries.
Structure of Society-It indicates that leaders and businessmen were the important organs of society. There were sailors, peasants, soldiers, money-changers, common people, and slaves in the society.
Religion-Islam propagated by Prophet Muhammed who was Arab by language and a merchant by profession. Before Muhammad, there was prevalent idolatry in Islamic lands. In Mecca, there was a cube-like structure called Kaba in which idols were placed and worshipped. An idol was called Sanam and the shrine in which it was placed called shrine. Arabs were polytheistic and nothing was clear for the notion of a supreme God.
They began to call it Allah, as Jewish and Christian tribes living in their midst, had faith in Jew and Jesus Christ. Muhammad declared him a rasul of God and suggested Salat for Arabs. This religion was called Islam and its followers were called Muslims. Rituals were very simple as one has to join with Salat, distribute alms to beggars and keep away himself from theft. Umma had to bear witness (Shahadat) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities.
This new religion garnered the support of the mass in Mecca but the affluent section of society created problems for the propagation of this religion. Muhammad had to leave Mecca and went to Medina. This day was later adopted as the first day of the Hijri era in the Muslim calendar. In order to create a religious bound political institution, Muhammad converted Umma into a wader community to include polytheists and tv Jews of Medina under political institution. He made certain ethics and rituals matching with the demand- of society and the circumstances. Agriculture, trade, Zakat, and ghazwa were the source of survival for the community. Thus, rituals to the effect of abstaining from the theft were removed.
Initially, all were nomadic people divided into Qabilas like Quraysh. After Muhammed, there became his descendants as Umayyads, Abbasids, Mawalis, Kharjis, etc. However, they all were Muslims and followers of Islam. Shias and Sunni sects were also formed during Ali, the fourth Caliph’s regime.
B. Political Structure-Muhammed established Islam religion along with the political organization, initially of his tribe Quraysh and then conversion of Christians, Jewish, etc. into Islam. Raids on Meccan caravans and nearby oases kept alive in order to keep the populace well earned and satisfied.
As Muhammed had died intestate, Umma became powerful and its leader was accepted as Caliph or deputy of Prophet Mohammad. The Amir Almuminin did not even take care of the wife, uncle, cousins, etc. for leadership which created a rift and internal conflicts which we see as the Battle of the Camel (657), Battle at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), the assassination of Uthman and Ali Abbasid revolution, etc.
Under the Caliphate system, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali reigned as Caliph i.e. deputy to Prophet. After Ali’s assassination, other Caliphs were the Umayyads and Abbasids. The first four Caliphs ruled from 632 to 661 (i.e. 29 years), Umayyads ruled from 662 to 750 C E. (i.e. about 90 years) and Abbasids ruled from 751 to 810 (i.e. 59 years). The Caliphate system declined gradually in 810 CE and Sultanate System came into existence.
The first Turk was Mamluk. He had to tackle Buyids (Iranian title holders of Shahanshah), Fatimids, Tahirids, Samanids, and Tulumids. Thus, Central Islamic Lands witnessed a number of rulers as Caliph coincide the Turk dynasty from 810 to 961 C E when Alptegin, father of Mahmud of Ghazni established Ghaznavid Sultanate. Thereafter, Seljuq Turks i.e. Tughril and Chaghri Beg, two brothers ruled as Sultan when this title was given to him by the Caliph al-Qaim.
Crusades took place during the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. Christians wanted Palestine but could not achieve success even after the three crusades they conducted. Finally, the Mamluks (Sultan) drove them under a Jihad started first by Salah al-Din (Saladin) his predecessor.
We can state that the Central Islamic land had witnessed a blend of governing systems under the Caliphate and Sultanate.
C. Agriculture-Three kind of landholding i.e.
- Small
- big and
- the large estates.
The state had overall control on agricultural land and a large chunk of coffer was contributed by the land revenue. Revenue for land was named Kharaj which varied from half to a fifth of the produce- Muslims were given concession as only Ushr (One-tenth of the produce) was charged as tax r Kharaj from them. Immigration facilities were given extra heed and care by the Caliphs and other rulers. We see Iqta System was adopted from the tenth century onward’s. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach, and brinjals were grown and exported to Europe.
D. Culture-Tafsir, Judith, Sharia, Mazhab, etc. were consolidated and society followed the rules under Sharia. Reasoning (Qiyas) was also given importance while writing Sharia for the Muslims. Owing to differences in the interpretation of sources and methods of jurisprudence, four schools of law were formed. These were-Maliki, Hanafi, Safii, and Hanbali schools knew in the name of their propounders of the jurists.
A group of religious-minded people was known as Sufis. They were believers in Rahabaniya and mysticism. They were like sadhus in Hinduism. Sufis sought to renounce the world and rely on God alone. Does this settle society influence by the ideas of pantheism and? love. Rabia of Basra, Bayazid Bistami of Iran and Dhulnan Mistri, etc. were the Saints or Sufis:
Greek philosophy, mathematics, and medicine were the subjects taught in schools that coincide with other Arabic subjects of the central Islamic lands. These new subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on, Islamic intellectual life. The logic was used to, defend Islamic beliefs. A number of books were written on medicine, law, and humanities. Prose and poetry saw exquisite growth. Poets of Persian origin revitalized and reinvented Arabic poetry and challenged the cultural hegemony of the Arabs. Pahlavi, the Iranian language t suffered a setback: Its version was prepared and it Was named New Persian. This language was preferred by all Caliphate and other rulers of Sultanate during that phase of the time. Rudaki was considered the father of New Persian poetry and UmarKhayyam brought rubai : (Persian poem) to the climax. A number of books in history, geography, humanities (storied, fables, etc.) were written in this period of history.
E. Economy-
- Urbanization took place and garrison cities, port cities, and capital cities were established. These were in Kufa, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, Alexandria, Daylam, Samarkand. Samaria, Antioch, and Tripoli.
- Goins of gold, silver, and copper were minted. Bags filled with coins were sealed by money changers. Gold was brought from Sudan (Africa) and silver from Zarafsan valley in Central Asia. Precious metals and corns came from Europe.
- Letters of Credit and bill of exchange etc. methods of payment were adopted.
- Family businesses set-up everywhere. Businesses were also run through employees like firms. and companies of modem period. When rib was declared unlawful, the people adopted hiya i.e. earning of interest on transactions unfair way.
- Ample supply of coins and trade promotion developed the trend of investment. People began releasing their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation.
Conclusion-Thus, on the basis of the above parameters, discussed,
we can conclude that nomadic tribes of the Central Islamic Lands gradually formed political institutions mainly on the Aristocracy line and d a blend of religion and politics is witnessed from the sixth to thirteenth centuries. Several Caliphates and Sultanates were formed and declined during the period of seven hundred years. Civil wars, crusades in varied colors and forms were fought one after another. In the fields of language, literature, architecture, and economy we observe, certain progress had been achieved.